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Thursday, July 5, 2012

With CPR, two bystanders are better than one: study

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Source: http://news.yahoo.com/cpr-two-bystanders-better-one-study-005118809.html

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Wednesday, July 4, 2012

A new particle has been discovered -- chances are, it is the Higgs boson

ScienceDaily (July 4, 2012) ? The long and complicated journey to detect the Higgs boson, which started with one small step about 25 years ago, might finally have reached its goal. This was reported by LHC particle accelerator scientists today (July 4, 2012) at the European Laboratory for Particle Physics, CERN, near Geneva.

The Higgs boson is the final building block that has been missing from the "Standard Model," which describes the structure of matter in the universe. The Higgs boson combines two forces of nature and shows that they are, in fact, different aspects of a more fundamental force. The particle is also responsible for the existence of mass in the elementary particles.

Weizmann Institute scientists have been prominent participants in this research from its onset. Prof. Giora Mikenberg was for many years head of the research group that searched for the Higgs boson in CERN's OPAL experiment. He was then leader of the ATLAS Muon Project -- one of the two experiments that eventually revealed the particle. Prof. Ehud Duchovni heads the Weizmann Institute team that examines other key questions at CERN. Prof. Eilam Gross is currently the ATLAS Higgs physics group convener. In the Weizmann team three scientific "generations" are represented: Mikenberg was Duchovni's supervisor, who was, in turn, Gross's supervisor.

Gross: "This is the biggest day of my life. I have been searching for the Higgs since I was a student in the 1980's. Even after 25 years, it still came as a surprise. No matter what you call it -- we are no longer searching for the Higgs but measuring its properties. Though I believed it would be found, I never dreamed it would happen while I was holding a senior position in the global research team."

Most of us experience the world as a diverse and complex place. But the physicists among us are not content with visible reality. They are striving to get to the bottom of that reality and to see whether it is, as they think, based on the absolute simplicity displayed by the early universe. They expect to observe a range of particles that are different "ensembles" of a handful of elementary particles. The scientists are hoping to see a unification of the four fundamental forces of nature that act on these particles (the weak force responsible for radioactivity, electromagnetic force, the strong force responsible for the existence of protons and neutrons, and gravitation).

The first step in the journey to unify the forces was completed with the almost certain discovery of the Higgs particle: The union of two elementary forces -- the electromagnetic and weak force, to become the electroweak force.

One aspect of the Higgs boson, named after the Scottish physicist Peter Higgs, manifests itself in the giving of mass to the weak force carriers -- the "W" and "Z" particles. (The electromagnetic force carrier, the photon, remains massless.)

The Largest Machine in the World

In the effort to discover the Higgs boson, unify the fundamental forces and understand the origin of mass in the universe, scientists built the world's largest machine: a particle accelerator nestled in a 27-km-long circular tunnel, 100 meters beneath the border between France and Switzerland, in the European particle physics laboratory, CERN, near Geneva.

This accelerator, called LHC (Large Hadron Collider), accelerates beams of protons up to 99.999998% the speed of light. According to the theory of relativity, this increases their mass by 7,500 times that of their normal resting mass. The accelerator aims the beams straight at each other, causing collisions that release so much energy, the protons themselves explode. For much less than the blink of an eye, conditions similar to those that existed in the universe in the first fraction of a second after the Big Bang are present in the accelerator.

As a result, particles of matter are turned into energy, in accordance with Albert Einstein's famous equation describing the conversion of matter into energy: E=mc². The energy then propagates through space and the system cools. (Something similar happened in the early evolution of the universe.) Consequently, energy turns back into particles of matter and the process is repeated until particles that can exist in reality as we know it are formed.

The collisions produce energetic particles, some of which exist for extremely short periods of time. The only way to discern their existence is to identify the footprints they leave behind. For this purpose, a variety of particle detectors were developed, each optimized for capturing particular types of particles.

Statistics

The likelihood of creating the Higgs boson in a single collision is similar to that of randomly extracting a specific living cell from the leaf of a plant, out of all the plants growing on Earth. To cope with this task, Weizmann Institute scientists, headed by Prof. Mikenberg, developed unique particle detectors, which were manufactured at the Institute, and in Japan and China. These detectors have been adapted to detect muon particles. In some of the very rare collisions that produce Higgs particles, the footprint of the Higgs particle -- that which is recorded in the detectors -- is four energetic muons. Thus, the detection of such muons provides circumstantial evidence for the existence of the Higgs particle.

The scientists analyzed data from a thousand trillion proton collisions; in these Higgs bosons are created along with many other similar particles. Evidence to suggest the existence of the Higgs arises through searches for anomalies in the collected data (in comparison with the expected data if such a particle does not exist). This search focuses on the estimated mass of the particle: 126 trillion electron volts (Gev). When the scientists do manage to find such anomalies, they must then rule out the possibility that it is due to statistical fluctuation.

The calculations carried out by scientists in recent weeks, in which Prof. Gross played a central role, have revealed, with a high degree of statistical significance, a new particle with a mass similar to the expected mass of the Higgs. The wording is purposely cautious, leaving room for the possibility that a new particle other than the Higgs can be found within this mass range. The probability that this is, indeed, a new particle, is quite low. (But if it were, in truth, a different particle, say some physicists, things will start to get "really interesting.")

CERN

CERN scientists invented and developed the computer language and basic concepts that later served as the basis for the establishment of the Internet. In fact, the first server of the "World Wide Web" was activated in CERN to facilitate communication between scientists from around the globe participating in experiments carried out locally. The organization also served as a model for the establishment of the European Union, and its influence on Europe's technology and economy is reminiscent of the American space program.

The LHC particle accelerator is based on superconducting electromagnets working at very low temperatures: less than two degrees above absolute zero (minus 271? Celsius). It generates about one billion particle collisions per second: If they were people, it would be as if each person on the planet meets every one of the six billion inhabitants of the world every six seconds. Calculating and analyzing data from these collisions is like trying to understand what all the inhabitants of the world are saying, while each is holding 20 telephone conversations at once.

This experimental system includes the world's largest superconducting electromagnets, built in conjunction with Israeli companies. The entire structure includes 10,000 radiation detectors spaced just one millimeter apart, has a volume of 25,000 cubic meters and features half a million electronic channels. Most of the muon radiation detectors were built from components produced in Israel. A unique laser system tracks the exact location of the detectors with an accuracy of 25 microns (half the thickness of a human hair).

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The above story is reprinted from materials provided by Weizmann Institute of Science.

Note: Materials may be edited for content and length. For further information, please contact the source cited above.

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Disclaimer: Views expressed in this article do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily or its staff.

Source: http://feeds.sciencedaily.com/~r/sciencedaily/~3/QCYW_MUjlbE/120704124323.htm

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Barclays' Diamond faces grilling in parliament

Source: http://news.yahoo.com/barclays-diamond-faces-grilling-parliament-231728067--finance.html

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CERN scientists discover new subatomic particle

GENEVA (Reuters) - Scientists at Europe's CERN research center have found a new subatomic particle, a basic building block of the universe, which appears to be the boson imagined and named half a century ago by theoretical physicist Peter Higgs.

"We have reached a milestone in our understanding of nature," CERN director general Rolf Heuer told a gathering of scientists and the world's media near Geneva on Wednesday.

"The discovery of a particle consistent with the Higgs boson opens the way to more detailed studies, requiring larger statistics, which will pin down the new particle's properties, and is likely to shed light on other mysteries of our universe."

Two independent studies of data produced by smashing proton particles together at CERN's Large Hadron Collider produced a convergent near-certainty on the existence of the new particle. It is unclear whether it is exactly the boson Higgs described.

But addressing scientists assembled in the CERN auditorium, Heuer posed them a question: "As a layman, I would say I think we have it. Would you agree?" A roar of applause said they did.

Higgs, now 83, from Edinburgh University was among six theorists who proposed the existence of a mechanism by which matter in the universe gained mass. Higgs himself argued that if there were an invisible field responsible for the process, it must be made up of particles. The particle is the emissary of the field and proves its existence.

He and others were at CERN to welcome news of what, to the embarrassment of many scientists, some commentators have labeled the "God particle" for its role in turning the Big Bang into a living universe: Clearly overwhelmed, his eyes welling up, Higgs told the symposium of fellow researchers: "It is an incredible thing that it has happened in my lifetime."

He later told Reuters of his admiration for the work of the thousands of scientists and engineers who worked on the practical experimental and statistical work which had, finally, confirmed what he and others had described with mathematics.

"I had no expectation that I would still be alive when it happened," he said of the speed with which they found evidence.

"It is very satisfying," he said. "For me personally it's just the confirmation of something I did 48 years ago."

He predicted further investigation by the CERN teams would probably confirm the particle is at least related to his idea: "It would be very odd if it were not any kind of Higgs boson."

"For physics, in one way, it is the end of an era in that it completes the Standard Model," he said of the basic theory physicists currently use to describe what they understand so far of a cosmos built from 12 fundamental particles and four forces.

The two separate teams at CERN worked independently through data, hunting for tiny divergences that might betray the existence of the new boson, a class of particle named for Albert Einstein's Indian collaborator Satyendra Nath Bose.

"It's a boson!" headlined Britain's Science and Technology Facilities Council in a statement on its researchers' role in the delivery of the "dramatic 5 sigma signal" for the existence of the long-sought particle.

Five sigma, a measure of probability reflecting a less than one in a million chance of a fluke in the data, is a widely accepted standard for scientists to accept the particle exists.

"The fact that both our teams have independently come to the same results is very powerful," Oliver Buchmueller, a senior physicist on one of the research teams, told Reuters.

"We know it is a new boson. But we still have to prove definitively that it is the one that Higgs predicted."

Bosons are one of two fundamental classes of subatomic particle. Other bosons include photons, associated with light.

UNIVERSAL THEORY

The Higgs theory explains how particles clumped together to form stars, planets and life itself.

Without the Higgs particle, the universe would have remained a formless soup of particles shooting around at the speed of light, the theory goes.

It is the last undiscovered piece of the Standard Model that describes the fundamental make-up of the universe. The model is for physicists what the theory of evolution is for biologists.

What scientists do not yet know from the latest findings is whether the particle they have discovered is the Higgs boson as described by the Standard Model. It could also be a variant of the Higgs idea or an entirely new subatomic particle that could force a rethink on the fundamental structure of matter.

The last two possibilities are, in scientific terms, the most exciting.

Packed audiences of particle physicists, journalists, students and even politicians filled conference rooms in Geneva, London and a major physics conference in Melbourne, Australia, to hear the announcement.

EXPLORATION AHEAD

Despite the excitement, physicists cautioned that there was still much to learn: "We have closed one chapter and opened another," said Peter Knight of Britain's Institute of Physics.

Buchmueller at CERN said: "If I were a betting man, I would bet that it is the Higgs. But we can't yet say that definitely yet. It is very much a smoking duck that walks and quacks like the Higgs. But we now have to open it up and look inside before we can say that it is indeed the Higgs."

CERN research director Sergio Bertolucci said: "It's hard not to get excited by these results.

"We stated last year that in 2012 we would either find a new Higgs-like particle or exclude the existence of the Standard Model Higgs. With all the necessary caution, it looks to me that we are at a branching point: the observation of this new particle indicates the path for the future."

Joe Incandela, a spokesman for one of the CERN research teams, said the new boson his team observed had a mass of 123.3 gigaelectron volts (GeV).

Reflecting on the scale of the endeavor to find it, he added: "It's been an incredible project over two decades. It has involved around 3,300 scientists to get to this result ... These results are now global and shared by the whole of mankind."

Higgs called it a great achievement for the Large Hadron Collider, the 27-km (17-mile) long particle accelerator built in a tunnel underneath the French-Swiss border where experiments to search for the Higgs boson have taken place.

Of his own scientific career, he conceded he had always been cut out for mathematical theorizing rather than experimental labors in the laboratory: "I certainly did some lab work as a schoolboy in Bristol," he told Reuters. "I was incompetent."

(Additional reporting by Robert Evans in Geneva, Rosalba O'Brien in London and Sonali Paul in Melbourne. Editing by Alastair Macdonald)

Source: http://news.yahoo.com/scientists-unveil-milestone-higgs-boson-hunt-044513533.html

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